The picture below is of an '1831 Commemorative installation' a few of us set up on 3 June 2006, to mark 175th anniversary of the 1831 Insurrection, particularly to mark 
the anniversary of ''Bloody Friday'' when soldiers stationed in the Castle Inn, Merthyr Tudful fired on people, killing over 28 in number. This ''1831 Commemorative Installation'' represents the Red Flag carried by the radicals, on which atop of the flag pole, a loaf of bread had been stuck. This ''1831 Commemoration installation'' was placed close to site of where the Castle Inn once stood, site of where the ''Massacre'' took place about mid day of 3 June 1831 - ''Bloody Friday''. I returned a week later and it was still there, although the loaf had gone? and the flowers were wilting. our purpose for placing this there on this anniversary was for a number of reasons, we hope this now will become an annual event in remembrance of ''Bloody Friday'', as well as contributing to the annual 1831 Commemoration in the town of the Merthyr Rising. Hopefully such in time will encourage the setting up of a more permanent memorial to remember the dead of the '1831 Bloody Friday Massacre'. At the very least, as something which could be done very quickly, would be to paint a mural on the wall, behind the ''installation'' in the Photo above, standing now on site of the Castle Inn, is a dance hall. Yes! kind of difficult what to make of that? but before, this presentuse, it had been Merthyr's Castle Cinema. NB: There are plenty of bollards around this place, so if you wish and have the mind to do so, you could as I tape flowers to them in your own personal annual rememberance of the men and women who gave their lives for your liberty from tyrrany and oppression in an heroic struggle against exploitation. For details of Commemoration events and activities, see at end of this posting.
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A Plaque exists on the Library at Merthyr Tudful which unfortunatly commemorates more Dic Penderyn than the 1831 Insurrection, nor does it mention those who were killed by the soldiers on the 3 June 1831 - 'Bloody Friday'. It is also unfortunate that Dic Penderyn alone is mostly remembered whilst the radical leader of the workers and people in this insurrection of 1831 was Lewis Lewis, Lewsyn yr Heliwr who is most deserving of memorialising as well. Please consider this injustice.
Remember Insurrection 1831.
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2006 marked the 175th anniversary of the Hirwaun/Merthyr Rising 1831, 7 days which changed Welsh History. I attempted last year to organise a major commemoration of the 175th anniversary but only met with limited success. I had proposed this 2006 commemoration become basis of an annual event, bigger in scale than the present limited annual 'Dic Penderyn Commemoration' held by a local group of enthusiasts. However, my attempts in this direction failed for a verity of reasons but I am not daunted and will continue to promote and advance ideas in such 1831 commemoration Initiative in this blog. I will not again attempt to organise a major festival, this I will leave to others who may become enthused by this promotional primer. In 2006, I attempted to advance this initiative accross a broad left spectrum, from radical Welsh Republicans to those of more Radical Socialist mind and action within ranks of Left Nationalists, Labour and Anarchists. My attempts made little impression on a much ''fractured left'', nor was ''Radical Welsh Republicanism'' able to commit to such commemoration. Welsh Labour Movement seems more interested in commemorating the Tolpuddle Martyrs than the Welsh Insurrectionists of 1831, but that is not quite true as Merthyr Labour has in past organised major commemoration of 1831 in Cyfarthfa Park but have no great interest to continue such at present, niether do 'Welsh Trade Unions'. The locally based Dic Penderyn Society remained aloof, and continued independantly to organise their Dic Penderyn Commemoration at the Dic Penderyn Plaque outside the Town's Libray. They also organise an 1831 Exhibition at the Town Library plus talks in the town on subjects related to 1831. These are worth supporting with your attendence, as and when possible.
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Having via Cofiwn been responsible for advancing idea of organising the first Merthyr 1831 Commemoration, I find it sad that the existing 1831 enthusiasts in the town could not support the idea and initiative of a major commemoration but perhaps understandable, as since my earlier days of 1831 Commemoration, I have moved on from the traditionally accepted historical and political appraisal and appreciation of the 1831 Insurrection. In simplicity, suffice to say this is best exemplified by those who follow behind Thomas Llywelyn and the Reformist Road from Twyn y Waun Common, that eventually leads to ''British Chartism'' and the ''British Labour Movement''. Alternativelly, I now and encourage others to follow the Lewis Lewis Radical Road from Hirwaun Common that took the form of a 'Natural Justice Rebellion', which still to this day would inspire and motivate radical action by people rather than political reformism that always leads to betrayal. These themes I develope on and advance below, also will continue to do so, in future postings to this RED REMEMBRANCER BLOG.
Here, I republish the 1831 Primer I used in 2006 regards prompting and promoting 175th anniversary commemorating the Hirwaun/ Merthyr Rising of 1831. It will, I hope still be of some use. .
Introduction: ''Seizing the Time'' and yes that time is now! This document has been produced to act as a primer that is preparing people with background information on the 1831 Insurrection. Thence hopefully will help to motivate and prompt as many people, organisations and Institutions as possible to be involved in working towards a major commemoration. This most important historic event, seven days of an Insurrection that would have profound repercussions on Welsh History is deserving of our special attention. It is a fact that I having been born in Merthyr with coal dust between my toes, I have spent most of my adult life via Cofiwn and Embassy Glyndwr ''treading the grass'' of medieval Wales promoting Welsh Princes as Llywelyn III and Owain Glyndwr. However, my research and studies of Owain Glyndwr period had began to re – radicalise me and turn my mind to more a peoples history in aftermath of the last great war of Independence 1400 – 16 – 21. This was given a good hard push forward after having had a meeting with Bwrdd yr Iaith Cymraeg to discuss with them their Dathlu Cymru / Celebrate Wales Initiative, in the main a web site and calendar (2004). .
Later when given their prospectus and calendar , I noted that they had managed to ignore 200 years of Southern Welsh Workers history. Their initiative was largely about festivals and thus traditional Celtic Festivals and contemporary celebrations of Dydd Glyndwr and commemoration of Dydd Llywelyn III also Rebecca Movement were noted but nothing of comparable connection to the South. There was recognition of the annual ‘International Rugby Season’ as main interest to ''Hwntws''. I immediately realised this was as much the usual but hopefully not typical view of those with ‘Grass between their toes’’ (non – Hwntws?) and of a certain school of Welsh Nationalism, usually cultural that considered Remembering Cilmeri 1282 more important perhaps than remembering Hirwaun Common 1831. I of course in part admit my guilt in this matter but now I am prompted to make amends. It will be one of the questions posed is why is there this ''Cultural Separatism'' in historical consciousness and appreciation of our history. Above I have castigated those with ''Grass between their toes'' but those with ''Coal between their toes'' can be equally myopic and tunnel visioned. To some how counter both these myopic views I have written much on Welsh history which attempts to creativelly interweave that history in both time and place – uniting our history as one, as I would wish our people and nation to so view. Thus chiefly when I say let us ''Seize the time'' I am in the main saying it is time we viewed, taught and informed on all our history but for me the emphasis hence shall be on Insurrection 1831 at Hirwaun, Aberdar as well as Merthyr Tudful.
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1966 marked also the 40th anniversary of the founding of the annual Cilmeri Commemoration by a 'Patriotic Front' of Radical Alternative Nationalists (Some ironically so called ''Republicans''). So what is the connection with Merthyr Rising 1831, well it is a rather convoluting and tenuous connection via myself being born in Merthyr and thence one of the founders of aforementioned Cilmeri Commemoration. However, it is not so much that but more to do with other more contemporary historical political connections regards in main the history of ''Alternative N
ationalism Movement and Struggle in Wales 1946 to present day. (http://awnms.blogspot.com) The inspiration for a Cilmeri commemorative rally was provided by Emrys Roberts and Harri Web who in 1965 formed a ''Ginger Group'' within Plaid Cymru and also published a journal called 'Cilmeri Centre point' this they launched at Cilmeri as a ''Media opportunity'' event. In the following year was born the Cilmeri rally which has I have stated in 1966 celebrates its 40th year. So what you may ask? Well the important connection here is Harri Web, then a Librarian living and working in Merthyr, Harri was a ''Republican Remembrancer'' of the 1831 Merthyr Rising long before Alexander Cordell and Gwyn Alf Williams were ''Peoples Remembrancers''. 2006 also marks 50th anniversary of the beginnings of the first 'Welsh Republican Movement' of which Harri Web along with Ivor Wilkes were the ''main men'' in promoting a ''radicalised'' Welsh history largely inspired by the popular protests of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ivor Wilkes wrote the solid Social history and Harri did the ''Romantic Republicanism'' to prompt into existence a radical ''historical consciousness'' to motivate their brand of ‘’Radical Welsh Republicanism’’.
In 1956/7? this 'Welsh Republican Movement' eventually demised, ironically in the year in which the ‘Cilmeri Cenotaph’ was erected and unveiled. 2006/7? marked/marks the 50th anniversary of this and the 725th anniversary of the death of Llywelyn at Cefn y Bedd near Cilmeri (now thought to be Aberedw) and of course 2007 marks 25th anniversary of the great Cofiwn 1282 Cilmeri commemoration, which I had an hand in the organisation of. To me the importance I attach to this piece of ‘Alternative Nationalist History’ is that as a young man my interest in Welsh history matured via the writings of Wilkes and Web, strongest influence then was Harri, for in the 60’s Ivor Wilkes had departed for Africa. So when Harri the ex ''Radical Republican'' pointed to Cilmeri our generation of ‘’Radical Nationalists’’ took that path to Cilmeri 1282 and not to Hirwaun common 1831.
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Hirwaun/Merthyr Rising 1831 Beginnings:
The Reformist Road to Twyn y Waun 30 May 1831, or the Radical Road to Hirwaun Common 31st May 1831. There are two traditional views of the Merthyr Rising of 1831, they are not necessary totally separate views re the history and conditions that caused this workers revolt to break out into an armed up rising. Such has common roots, causes and conditions. Suffice to say for a very simple over view just read the account headed Merthyr Rising p396 of the Oxford Companion to the Literature of Wales, Ed Meic Stephens. Oxford University Press. You will of course not leave it at that but go on to books that will deal with the subject in greater depth, some of which I will mention below. What I wish to pick up and focus on is those two separate views which point out the two separate paths that converged on Merthyr 1831 and at the end of May beginning of June causing the most major of Welsh insurrections since time of Owain Glyndwr. Ivor Wilkes actually draws attention to one radical of the times drawing attention to Owain Glyndwr * as an example to follow, but very much in passing as there is no clear and identifiable definite nationalist idealism or political principle we see in the revolt as comparable say to that of the near enough contemporary 'United Irishmen Movement' and in Ireland's Wolfe Tone and later Robert Emmets revolts. (see Historian David Jones). * An Owain Glyndwr Inn existed in Merthyr 1848, was it there in 1831, anyone know?
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However, having said that, whilst accepting the usual identification of the Merthyr Rising of 1831 being in many ways part of the general British struggle for Political
reform that would be the basis of a later much stronger Chartist Movement, part of the struggle to establish Trade Unionism However, there is another aspect of the Revolt that may be seen to have more ''National Welsh Connotations'' and that is in the more radical nature and form the Merthyr Rising took as a particularly ''Welsh Insurrection''. Such ''Radical Welsh Roots and Route’’ is the one presented by Welsh Republicans in sound historical interpretation by historian Ivor Wilkes and more romantically by Harri Web in his ''Republican writings'' and poetry. This is presented as a ‘natural justice’ protest that began on Hirwaun common, that radically overtook reformism. Such radicalism prior and since is represented by a long history of traditional Welsh political radicalism, often seen as militant workers in revolt as at Tonypandy 1910 and Llanelli 1911, even perhaps there are histories echoes from 1831 and 1839, in the Nationalist 'Adfywiad Gwladgarol 1962 - 69'. (Also see writings on this by professor Gwyn Alf Williams).
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Merthyr Tudful had been in discontent for a long time, particularly since the depression of 1829 subsequent reform agitation following not least in early months of 1831 had the town in a ferment of discontent. These political disturbances calumniating in a great Reform Rally at Twyn y Waun on same day as Waun Fair 30 May 1831 . This Reform Rally was a political affair led by dissident radicals such as Cyfar
tha Coal Miner Thomas Llywelyn and issues raised at this rally were in nature of Reform and Trade Union rights under. The ''reformers' banners by the way declared 'Reform in Parliament' and oh yes 'God Save William IV'. It seems the following day 31 May 1831 Thomas Llywelyn attempted to hold another reform rally on Hirwaun Common, here however ‘Reformism’ met with the more militant men of Hirwaun who seemed ''hell bent'' on more Radical means and measures to secure their purpose. Their purpose being much to do with a long tradition of struggle for 'natural justice' and thus whilst Thomas Llywelyn led his Trade Unionists off on a march to Aberdar to seek workers justice in term of labour rights; improved conditions and wages. Back on Hirwaun Common other more militant matters were being considered which would come to an head and determine that over the following days of June 1831 in Merthyr Tudful would take place a fiercely fought ''Welsh Insurrection'', and not just the usual reform demonstration that Merthyr had been used to since the previous year.
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I do not want to dwell much more on repeating the history of the Merthyr Rising as there are a number of books you should read on the subject which will more than inform you of the history. These books wil reflect all the differing views as to the revolts nature, form and purpose. Suffice for me conclude that after the ''Reformists'' had left Hirwaun Common a ''Natural Justice Rebellion'' was to break out. The Hirwaun 'Radicals' or rather perhaps ''Primitiv
e Rebels'' killed a calf and dipped in it’s blood in a white cloth (perhaps a reform Banner, left behind by Thomas Llywelyn), this they rose up on a pole as possibly the first ever Red Flag of Popular Rebellion along with another banner that stated ‘Bara neu Waed’. I have no doubt that it was the people marching under the Red Flag, possibly their ''radical roots'' firmly set in a native Welsh tradition of popular protest that would in seeking ''Natural Justice'' be cause of the Merthyr’ Rising 1831. However, what ever your view there can be in no doubt that the following 7 days in June changed Welsh History immensely. This of course needs to be discussed and debated during course of any commemoration of 1831, but let be also an entertaining leisure experience as well as informative and of educational purpose to remind we, who we are and where we come from in a broad historical sense but also to tell the World this story too.
The Hirwaun/Merthyr Rising 1831 Time line events.
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Prologue: Events of 30th and 31st May 1831 at respectively Twyn y Waun and Hirwaun Common I have already dealt with, suffice to say with Thomas Llywelyn’s march on Aberdar And Lewis’s march on the court of request we witness discontent brewing into wide spread disturbances that would by 1 June 1831 burst fourth as the as first major Welsh Insurrection since time of Owain Glyndwr. It is common amongst Welsh historians who have inherited the Victorian historians mantle to be almost apologetic for the Welsh ''having a rush of blood to the head'', as the English chroniclers often accused us of having. The same case is made for Owain Glyndwr as it is for the Merthyr Insurrectionists, say nothing that promotes the idea it may have been planned in advance. Having spent many years of studying the Owain Glyndwr insurrection I can assure the reader that it was very much planned and possibly for at least two years in advance. After but limited renewed study of the Merthyr Rising I am slowly coming to the oppinion that this too, was very much planned in advance. I am not going to make a case for this now. I have myself more studies to take aboard but I want you to read and study, discuss and debate, coming to your own opinions – I am as often as not perhaps being a ''Devils advocate'' and thus also draw your attention as much to Lewis Lewis as Dic Penderyn. So on with the''Revolution'' or at least commemoration of the 1831 Insurrection, see the time line below:
* 1st June 1831. Workers ''Occupy Cefn Coed and begin to organise a ''Workers Army'', they set up ''Defensive Positions'' on roads leading into Cefn and Merthyr. That night they and their followers march on Merthyr Tudful.
* 2nd June 1831. The Town is seized by Workers, riot act is read and troops sent for, from Brecon, Swansea, Cardiff and further afield.
* 3rd June 1831. ''The Battle of Castle Inn'' aka ''Bloody Friday Massacre'' takes place and 28 “Rioters” are killed by the soldiers.
* 4th June 1831. Troops arrive but one column is ambushed and disarmed by workers, prior to this the ''Workers Army'' had stopped an Amunition from Brecon reaching Soldiers in the Town, a calvary detachment 100 strong sent to retrieve the amunition cart was beaten into retreat.
* 5th June 1831. Gwent Workers rise and march to support Merthyr Workers.
* 6th June 1831. Great workers Gathering at Twyn y Waun, troops arrive, riot act raid three times, Soldiers level their guns. Crowds nerves fail and they flee back to Merthyr Tudful.
* 7th June 1831. By now 1000's of troops are flooding into Southern Wales, and 100's of Troops occupy and gradually regain control of Merthyr, mass arrests and imprisonment follow. Hirwaun is singled out for special attention in ''Mopping up Operations'' by bodies of Militia and Cavalery detachments.
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Epilogue: During the days that followed the troops searched particularly for those seen a
s leaders of the revolt, many were arrested and imprisoned amongst them Dic Penderyn and shortly after Lewis Lewis was captured. All were put on trial, found guilty and sentence to death or transportation to Australia. Some see as mysterious that Lewis Lewis was reprieved but Dic Penderyn was executed on
13 August 1831, thus was created a “Welsh Working Class Martyr” long remembered as a popular 'Hero of Welsh History'. Lewis Lewis - Lewsyn yr Heliwr no doubt instigator and leader of the revolt has been largely forgotten. Same the Merthyr Rising 1831, for whilst it remained''Politically'' or ''culturally correct'' to remember Dic Penderyn later ''respectable Victorian Wales'' chose to forget
the Merthyr Rising 1831. So too Welsh Labour – Unionist Tradition which came to remember more about the Tolpuddle martyrs and English Labour history rather than their own Welsh Labour History. Ironically the resurrection and restoration of a ''Welsh Labour History''was left to be more popularised by a Welsh Republican Movement 1946 – 57 via the writings of republican historian Ivor Wilkes & republican bard Harri Web.
Hist Note: Twyn y waun had been location of the Waun fair since the middles ages and possibly further back it may have been a traditional ancient gathering point for people. During the 16th century Waun Fair was recorded in official records as being associated with outlaws and thieves particularly Horse stealers and cattle rustlers who brought their four legged stolen goods to dispose of at Waun fair. So well known was this that even suppliers of the English army came to Waun fair to buy cattle on the cheap and of course make huge profits. Twyn y Wuan and Hirwaun Common are situated in an area of ‘Blaenau Morgannwg’ which was heartland of ‘’Free Welsh’’ resistance to Anglo – Norman Conquest and colonisation, this tradition of resistance and rebellion goes way back to times of the Celtic Silurian tribes 70 year bitter opposition to Roman Rule.
Other historical facts of connected Interest:
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Hirwaun Common. It was in this area that the ''Welsh Rebels'' of 1294 lay down their arms. · Ystrad Felte. In this area Lewis Lewis was caught in 1831, here also Llywelyn Bren surrendered 1316.
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Reading Matter for you yourselves to determine much. For introduction, read up on following subjects matter (full details & literature via web search). * Any material on making of modern Wales post act of union 1536. * 18th Century Welsh Cultural Renaissance, Religious Revival & Political dissent. * 18th century popular protest, disturbances and discontent, focus 1798 – 1831. * The Merthyr Rising 1831 and all appertaining to it. * Post 1831 Scotch Cattle and the Newport Insurrection 1839. * The 1839 – Rebecca Rebellion of the Western Counties. * 1848 the Year of European Revolutions and in Wales the Blue Books. * 1848 – 1880’s Rise of Liberal Wales to Cymru Rydd and beyond. * Rise of Welsh Labour Party and Trade Unionism in Wales. * Welsh Nationalism Inc anything on 'Alternative Nationalism and Republicanism'.
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For the chief reading material regards much of above & Merthyr 1831 plus it’s aftermath to 1831 & beyond you may focus on three particular historians: * D. J. V. Jones: Before Rebecca Popular Protest in Wales 1793 – 1835. * David Smith: For Traditional “Unionist British Labour history’’. * Gwyn A. Williams: Protagonist of a Communist & later day radical nationalist tradition. * Ivor Wilkes: Protagonist of a “Welsh Republican” view. * Further to above there are a great number of other books & essays in a number of journals, as ‘Llafur’ all of which may be searched out via the web & bibliographies. I also have two essays that touch on the above, which you may request copies of via email only; they are:
* Aftermath. A radical interpretation of Welsh History from conclusion of Glyndwr war to the Merthyr Rising of 1831. * Dic Penderyn. An interpretation of the Welsh Martyr Complex and why”.
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Also last but not least all the books by Alexander Cordell regards these epic years in the history of Wales, they are fictional works but not with out much ground breaking research that gives them a clear ring of authenticity with a terrifically readable creative flow that grips the reader in the authors inspired imagination. These works are:
· Hosts of Rebecca.
· Rape of the Fair Country.
· Song of the Earth.
· The Fire People.
· Proud & Savage Land.
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I cannot depart with out saying that in the 60’s Alexander Cordell’s books inspired me as they did many others, and then in those times we are starved off history books and creative historical fiction. Fortunately for us the aforementioned books are now republished by Blorenge Press. So do buy and read ok! (publishers address via Web). One last matter 2007 marks the 10th anniversary of Alexander Cordell’s death in 1957, surely time that he was honoured by the academic and arts establishment of Wales. Why Not?
The Insurrection 1831 Annual Commemoration.
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I would suggest is annually held over the May B.H. Weekend in area of Pentre Penderyn and Hirwaun, with possibilties of visiting locations associate with Lewis Lewys - Lewsyn yr Heliwr as the Lamb Inn where he was ''imprisioned'' after his capture. There is a path - walk from Penderyn to Hirwaun along the old tram way, last but not least note there are a number of public paths onto Hirwaun Common where the radical workers raised their Red Flag on 31 May 1831.
Commemorate the Merthyr 'Red Commune' 1831: In time it would be great to see a ''Red Week'' long Radical 1831 Commemorative Festival being held in Merthyr Tudful during the first week of June, but until then why not at least visit Cefn Coed, see photo below of Cafe - Bar there, ideal place to meet from where to take a walk around Cefn, the ''Barrio'' of the 'Workers Army of 1831'. Following visit Merthyr Tudful and place your 'Bloody Friday' floral tributes close to site of the 'Massacre of 3 Mehefin 1831', I renamed the location 'Plas 3 Mehefin 1831'. Then go on to visit the museum at Cyfarthfa Castle and if time and weather is good, have yourself a picnic in the buetifull grounds of Parc Cyfarthfa.
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1831 Commemorations: Other matters.
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For a number of years there have been held small commemorations of these events and in memory of Dic Penderyn at Merthyr, Caerdydd and at grave side of Dic Penderyn. St Mary’s Church, Port Talbot. Further, I did see in Western Mail an item regards intention to set up a statue of Dic Penderyn in Part Talbot but have heard no more on this. Further ITV Wales were considering a drama based on the Merthyr Rising and Dic Penderyn, I do not know what has become of this either but hopefully in years to come, we shall see movement on these two projects and much more in way of memorials and why not a feature film? In mean time, if I learn of any specific 1831 Insurrection Commemoration events and activities, I will post them to this blog ok! Also note: Dydd Dic Penderyn Commemoration 13 August is annually held in Caerdydd and Port Talbot. Dic Penderyn was executed 13 Awst 1831: Outside the market on St Mary Street, Cardiff near the spot where he was executed, you will find a plaque in commemoration of his execution. To the last he protested his innocence, and his final words in Welsh were an anguished cry at injustice. "O Arglwydd, dyma gamwedd" "O Lord what an iniquity" he shouted, as the hangman's noose was tightened. Dic Penderyn’s coffin was then carried by cart to Port Talbot, where he was buried in cemetery of St Mary’s Church, where there is also held an annual commemoration.
Following the 1831 Insurrection, the workers sustained resistance to oppression and exploitation by organisation of a ''Secret Society'' known has the 'Scotch Cattle'. This workers underground movement were based mainly in Gwent where they continued their struggle up 1839, no doubt playing an huge part in the Newport Rising of 1831. After which not much is heard of the 'Scotch Cattle' until 1850, this time, it seems they have arisen again to be involved in a workers strike. It was during this strike that they threw a bomb into the house of a ''Black Leg'' (first bomb attack in Welsh History?). In passing, it is interesting to note, that in the police records of a famouse Murder trial in the Merthyr Area, it is mentioned during the course of the trial that two of the witnesses had fierce reputation as ''Scotch Cattle Men''. How much more of this history has been hidden or lost, perhaps now we will never know?
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Gethin ap Gruffydd.
During 1831 there were a good number of Insurrections; Workers and Slave Revolts and also a number of Nationalist Rebellions. These took place all over the world, the European Workers revolts will be of particular interest in the Merthyr 1831 Insurrection connection, particularly note the Bristol Riots and the Lyon Silk Workers Uprising, both of signifigance in a comparative study with the Workers Revolt in Merthyr Tudful. However, do'nt ignore reading up on the other Revolts and Rebellions below, also search Google for information on other Insurrections 1831 as in Belguim and Bosnia and in the Papal States of Italy. Further, of interest will be the beginnings of the Texas War of Independence, with of course it's connection to the Chartist Rising in Newport 1839.
